Decision-Making Confidence of Clinical Competency Committees for Entrustable Professional Activities.

Importance: A competency-based assessment framework using entrustable professional activities (EPAs) was endorsed by the American Board of Surgery following a 2-year feasibility pilot study. Pilot study programs' clinical competency committees (CCCs) rated residents on EPA entrustment semiannually using this newly developed assessment tool, but factors associated with their decision-making are not yet known. Objective: To identify factors associated with variation in decision-making confidence of CCCs in EPA summative entrustment decisions. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study used deidentified data from the EPA Pilot Study, with participating sites at 28 general surgery residency programs, prospectively collected from July 1, 2018, to June 30, 2020. Data were analyzed from September 27, 2022, to February 15, 2023. Exposure: Microassessments of resident entrustment for pilot EPAs (gallbladder disease, inguinal hernia, right lower quadrant pain, trauma, and consultation) collected within the course of routine clinical care across four 6-month study cycles. Summative entrustment ratings were then determined by program CCCs for each study cycle. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was CCC decision-making confidence rating (high, moderate, slight, or no confidence) for summative entrustment decisions, with a secondary outcome of number of EPA microassessments received per summative entrustment decision. Bivariate tests and mixed-effects regression modeling were used to evaluate factors associated with CCC confidence. Results: Among 565 residents receiving at least 1 EPA microassessment, 1765 summative entrustment decisions were reported. Overall, 72.5% (1279 of 1765) of summative entrustment decisions were made with moderate or high confidence. Confidence ratings increased with increasing mean number of EPA microassessments, with 1.7 (95% CI, 1.4-2.0) at no confidence, 1.9 (95% CI, 1.7-2.1) at slight confidence, 2.9 (95% CI, 2.6-3.2) at moderate confidence, and 4.1 (95% CI, 3.8-4.4) at high confidence. Increasing number of EPA microassessments was associated with increased likelihood of higher CCC confidence for all except 1 EPA phase after controlling for program effects (odds ratio range: 1.21 [95% CI, 1.07-1.37] for intraoperative EPA-4 to 2.93 [95% CI, 1.64-5.85] for postoperative EPA-2); for preoperative EPA-3, there was no association. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study, the CCC confidence in EPA summative entrustment decisions increased as the number of EPA microassessments increased, and CCCs endorsed moderate to high confidence in most entrustment decisions. These findings provide early validity evidence for this novel assessment framework and may inform program practices as EPAs are implemented nationally.

Transcriptomic analysis of the human habenula in schizophrenia.

Importance: Habenula (Hb) pathophysiology is involved in many neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. Deep brain stimulation and pharmacological targeting of the Hb are emerging as promising therapeutic treatments. However, little is known about the cell type-specific transcriptomic organization of the human Hb or how it is altered in schizophrenia. Objective: To define the molecular neuroanatomy of the human habenula and identify transcriptomic changes in individuals with schizophrenia compared to neurotypical controls. Design Setting and Participants: This study utilized Hb-enriched postmortem human brain tissue. Single nucleus RNA-sequencing (snRNA-seq) and single molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH) experiments were conducted to identify molecularly defined Hb cell types and map their spatial location (n=3-7 donors). Bulk RNA-sequencing and cell type deconvolution were used to investigate transcriptomic changes in Hb-enriched tissue from 35 individuals with schizophrenia and 33 neurotypical controls. Gene expression changes associated with schizophrenia in the Hb were compared to those previously identified in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), hippocampus, and caudate. Main Outcomes and Measures: Semi-supervised snRNA-seq cell type clustering. Transcript visualization and quantification of smFISH probes. Bulk RNA-seq cell type deconvolution using reference snRNA-seq data. Schizophrenia-associated gene differential expression analysis adjusting for Hb and thalamus fractions, RNA degradation-associated quality surrogate variables, and other covariates. Cross-brain region schizophrenia-associated gene expression comparison. Results: snRNA-seq identified 17 cell type clusters across 16,437 nuclei, including 3 medial and 7 lateral Hb populations. Cell types were conserved with those identified in a rodent model. smFISH for cell type marker genes validated snRNA-seq Hb cell types and depicted the spatial organization of subpopulations. Bulk RNA-seq analyses yielded 45 schizophrenia-associated differentially expressed genes (FDR < 0.05), with 32 (71%) unique to Hb-enriched tissue. Conclusions: These results identify topographically organized cell types with distinct molecular signatures in the human Hb. They further demonstrate unique transcriptomic changes in the epithalamus associated with schizophrenia, thereby providing molecular insights into the role of Hb in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Entrustable Professional Activities in Surgery: A Review.

Importance: Entrustable professional activities (EPAs) compose a competency-based education (CBE) assessment framework that has been increasingly adopted across medical specialties as a workplace-based assessment tool. EPAs focus on directly observed behaviors to determine the level of entrustment a trainee has for a given activity of that specialty. In this narrative review, we highlight the rationale for EPAs in general surgery, describe current evidence supporting their use, and outline some of the practical considerations for EPAs among residency programs, faculty, and trainees. Observations: An expanding evidence base for EPAs in general surgery has provided moderate validity evidence for their use as well as practical recommendations for implementation across residency programs. Challenges to EPA use include garnering buy-in from individual faculty and residents to complete EPA microassessments and engage in timely, specific feedback after a case or clinical encounter. When successfully integrated into a program's workflow, EPAs can provide a more accurate picture of residents' competence for a fundamental surgical task or activity compared with other assessment methods. Conclusions and Relevance: EPAs represent the next significant shift in the evaluation of general surgery residents as part of the overarching progression toward CBE among all US residency programs. While pragmatic challenges to the implementation of EPAs remain, the best practices from EPA and other CBE assessment literature summarized in this review may assist individuals and programs in implementing EPAs. As EPAs become more widely used in general surgery resident training, further analysis of barriers and facilitators to successful and sustainable EPA implementation will be needed to continue to optimize and advance this new assessment framework.

Benchmark of cellular deconvolution methods using a multi-assay reference dataset from postmortem human prefrontal cortex.

Background: Cellular deconvolution of bulk RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) data using single cell or nuclei RNA-seq (sc/snRNA-seq) reference data is an important strategy for estimating cell type composition in heterogeneous tissues, such as human brain. Computational methods for deconvolution have been developed and benchmarked against simulated data, pseudobulked sc/snRNA-seq data, or immunohistochemistry reference data. A major limitation in developing improved deconvolution algorithms has been the lack of integrated datasets with orthogonal measurements of gene expression and estimates of cell type proportions on the same tissue sample. Deconvolution algorithm performance has not yet been evaluated across different RNA extraction methods (cytosolic, nuclear, or whole cell RNA), different library preparation types (mRNA enrichment vs. ribosomal RNA depletion), or with matched single cell reference datasets. Results: A rich multi-assay dataset was generated in postmortem human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) from 22 tissue blocks. Assays included spatially-resolved transcriptomics, snRNA-seq, bulk RNA-seq (across six library/extraction RNA-seq combinations), and RNAScope/Immunofluorescence (RNAScope/IF) for six broad cell types. The Mean Ratio method, implemented in the DeconvoBuddies R package, was developed for selecting cell type marker genes. Six computational deconvolution algorithms were evaluated in DLPFC and predicted cell type proportions were compared to orthogonal RNAScope/IF measurements. Conclusions: Bisque and hspe were the most accurate methods, were robust to differences in RNA library types and extractions. This multi-assay dataset showed that cell size differences, marker genes differentially quantified across RNA libraries, and cell composition variability in reference snRNA-seq impact the accuracy of current deconvolution methods.

The gene expression landscape of the human locus coeruleus revealed by single-nucleus and spatially-resolved transcriptomics.

Norepinephrine (NE) neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) make long-range projections throughout the central nervous system, playing critical roles in arousal and mood, as well as various components of cognition including attention, learning, and memory. The LC-NE system is also implicated in multiple neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. Importantly, LC-NE neurons are highly sensitive to degeneration in both Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Despite the clinical importance of the brain region and the prominent role of LC-NE neurons in a variety of brain and behavioral functions, a detailed molecular characterization of the LC is lacking. Here, we used a combination of spatially-resolved transcriptomics and single-nucleus RNA-sequencing to characterize the molecular landscape of the LC region and the transcriptomic profile of LC-NE neurons in the human brain. We provide a freely accessible resource of these data in web-accessible and downloadable formats.

Validity of Entrustable Professional Activities in a National Sample of General Surgery Residency Programs.

BACKGROUND: The American Board of Surgery has endorsed competency-based education as vital to the assessment of surgical training. From 2018 to 2020, a national pilot study was conducted at 28 general surgery programs to evaluate feasibility of implementing entrustable professional activities (EPAs) for 5 common general surgical conditions. ACGME core competency Milestones were also rated for each resident by program clinical competency committees. This study aimed to evaluate the validity of general surgery EPAs compared with Milestones. STUDY DESIGN: Prospectively collected, de-identified EPA Pilot Study data were analyzed. EPAs studied were EPA-1 (gallbladder), EPA-2 (inguinal hernia), EPA-3 (right lower quadrant pain), EPA-4 (trauma), and EPA-5 (consult). Variables abstracted included levels of EPA entrustment (1 to 5) and corresponding ACGME Milestone subcompetency ratings (1 to 5) for the same study cycle. Spearman's correlations were used to evaluate the relationship between summative EPA scores and corresponding Milestone ratings. RESULTS: A total of 493 unique residents received a summative entrustment decision. EPA summative entrustment scores had moderate-to-strong positive correlation with mapped Milestone subcompetencies, with median rho value of 0.703. Among operation-focused EPAs, median rho values were similar between EPA-1 (0.688) and EPA-2 (0.661), but higher for EPA-3 (0.833). EPA-4 showed a strong positive correlation with diagnosis and communication competencies (0.724), whereas EPA-5, mapped to the most Milestone subcompetencies, had the lowest median rho value (0.455). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate-to-strong positive correlation was noted between EPAs and patient care, medical knowledge, and communication Milestones. These findings support the validity of EPAs in general surgery and suggest that EPA assessments can be used to inform Milestone ratings by clinical competency committees.

Health System Integration and Cancer Center Access for Rural Hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Cancer centers provide superior care but are less accessible to rural populations. Health systems that integrate a cancer center may provide broader access to quality surgical care, but penetration to rural hospitals is unknown. METHODS: Cancer center data were linked to health system data to describe health systems based on whether they included at least one accredited cancer center. Health systems with and without cancer centers were compared based on rural hospital presence. Bivariate tests and multivariable logistic regression were used with results reported as P-values and odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: Ninety percent of cancer centers are in a health system, and 72% of health systems (434/607) have a cancer center. Larger health systems (P = .03) with more trainees (P = .03) more often have cancer centers but are no more likely to include rural hospitals (11% vs 6%, P = .43; adjusted OR .69, 95% CI .28-1.70). The minority of cancer centers not in health systems (N = 95) more often serve low complexity patient populations (P = .02) in non-metropolitan areas (P = .03). DISCUSSION: Health systems with rural hospitals are no more likely to have a cancer center. Ongoing health system integration will not necessarily expand rural patients' access to surgical care under existing health policy infrastructure and incentives.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Operative Experience Among General Surgery Residents: A Multi-Institutional Study from the US ROPE Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship between race/ethnicity and case volume among graduating surgical residents. BACKGROUND: Racial/ethnic minority individuals face barriers to entry and advancement in surgery; however, no large-scale investigations of the operative experience of racial/ethnic minority residents have been performed. METHODS: A multi-institutional retrospective analysis of the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education case logs of categorical general surgery residents at 20 programs in the US Resident OPerative Experience Consortium database was performed. All residents graduating between 2010 and 2020 were included. The total, surgeon chief, surgeon junior, and teaching assistant case volumes were compared between racial/ethnic groups. RESULTS: The cohort included 1343 residents. There were 211 (15.7%) Asian, 65 (4.8%) Black, 73 (5.4%) Hispanic, 71 (5.3%) "Other" (Native American or Multiple Race), and 923 (68.7%) White residents. On adjusted analysis, Black residents performed 76 fewer total cases (95% CI, -109 to -43, P <0.001) and 69 fewer surgeon junior cases (-98 to -40, P <0.001) than White residents. Comparing adjusted total case volume by graduation year, both Black residents and White residents performed more cases over time; however, there was no difference in the rates of annual increase (10 versus 12 cases per year increase, respectively, P =0.769). Thus, differences in total case volume persisted over the study period. CONCLUSIONS: In this multi-institutional study, Black residents graduated with lower case volume than non-minority residents throughout the previous decade. Reduced operative learning opportunities may negatively impact professional advancement. Systemic interventions are needed to promote equitable operative experience and positive culture change.

Contemporary trends in extent of surgery for differentiated thyroid cancer with extrathyroidal extension.

OBJECTIVE: Although lobectomy is acceptable for patients with small, low-risk differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC), gross extrathyroidal extension (ETE) remains an indication for total thyroidectomy (TT). Here we investigate evolving trends in extent of surgery for â€‹+ â€‹ETE DTC. METHODS: Patients with +ETE DTC who underwent resection from 2010 to 2020 were identified using the National Cancer Database. The primary outcome was performance of TT versus lobectomy. RESULTS: Among 5851 patients, most were female (79.7%), white (80.0%), and had minimal ETE (91.8%). Ninety-two percent of patients received TT. Year of treatment was influential (p â€‹< â€‹0.001), with increasing lobectomy rates in later years. On multivariable analyses, a decreased likelihood of TT was seen in years 2015 through 2020. CONCLUSIONS: Most patients with +ETE DTC underwent guideline-concordant TT, but lobectomy rates doubled over the study period. These findings may reflect increased preference for lobectomy in low-risk DTC, but could undertreat patients with high-risk features.

A multi-institutional study from the US ROPE consortium examining factors associated with endocrine surgery exposure for general surgery residents.

BACKGROUND: Prior analyses of general surgery resident case logs have indicated a decline in the number of endocrine procedures performed during residency. This study aimed to identify factors contributing to the endocrine operative experience of general surgery residents and compare those who matched in endocrine surgery fellowship with those who did not. METHODS: We analyzed the case log data of graduates from 18 general surgery residency programs in the US Resident Operative Experience Consortium over an 11-year period. RESULTS: Of the 1,240 residents we included, 17 (1%) matched into endocrine surgery fellowships. Those who matched treated more total endocrine cases, including more thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal cases, than those who did not (81 vs 37, respectively, P < .01). Program-level factors associated with increased endocrine volume included endocrine-specific rotations (+10, confidence interval 8-12, P < .01), endocrine-trained faculty (+8, confidence interval 7-10, P < .01), and program co-location with otolaryngology residency (+5, confidence interval 2 -8, P < .01) or endocrine surgery fellowship (+4, confidence interval 2-6, P < .01). Factors associated with decreased endocrine volume included bottom 50th percentile in National Institute of Health funding (-10, confidence interval -12 to -8, P < .01) and endocrine-focused otolaryngologists (-3, confidence interval -4 to -1, P < .01). CONCLUSION: Several characteristics are associated with a robust endocrine experience and pursuit of an endocrine surgery fellowship. Modifiable factors include optimizing the recruitment of dedicated endocrine surgeons and the inclusion of endocrine surgery rotations in general surgery residency.

Defining the Disparity: A Multi-Institutional Analysis of Factors Associated With Decreased Resident Operative Experience.

INTRODUCTION: Technical learning in surgical training is multifaceted and existing literature suggests a positive relationship between case volume and proficiency. Little is known about factors associated with a decreased volume of operative experience. This study aimed to identify resident and program factors associated with general surgery residents (GSR) in the bottom quartile of logged case volume upon program completion. METHODS: A post hoc analysis of a multicenter study was used to examine case logs for categorical GSR. Participants included graduates between 2010 and 2020 from 20 programs. Residents below and above the 25th percentile for total operative volume were compared. RESULTS: The present study includes 1343 GSR who graduated over the 11-y period. In total, 336 residents were below the 25th percentile and 1007 residents were above the 25th percentile. Those below the 25th percentile were more likely to be female (41% versus 34%, P = 0.02), identify as underrepresented in medicine (22% versus 14%, P < 0.01), and pursue fellowship (86% versus 80%, P = 0.01) compared to those above the 25th percentile. Residents below the 25th percentile were more likely to have graduated from a low volume program (55% versus 25%, P < 0.01) and from top National Institutes of Health funded institutions (57% versus 52%, P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: This study identified individual and program characteristics associated with lower operative volume of GSR. Understanding such characteristics will aid surgical educators to achieve better equity in training.

Racial and ethnic variation in presentation and outcomes of high-grade soft tissue sarcoma at a Southeastern United States comprehensive cancer center.

BACKGROUND: High-grade soft tissue sarcoma is rare and associated with poor prognosis. This study examines racial and ethnic variation in presentation and outcomes at a Southeastern US cancer center. METHODS: Among an institutional cohort of patients seen between January 2016-December 2021, racial and ethnic differences were evaluated using chi-squared tests, Kaplan Meier curves, and Cox proportional hazards models. RESULTS: There were 295 patients (71 â€‹% Non-Hispanic White, 24 â€‹% Black, 3 â€‹% Hispanic White, 2 â€‹% Other). Black representation was greater than national cohorts (24 â€‹% vs. 12 â€‹%). Histological subtype varied by race/ethnicity (p â€‹= â€‹0.007). Adjusting for histology and stage, survival was worse for Black vs. White patients (HR 1.71, 95 â€‹% CI 1.07-2.76) and those with metastatic disease (5.47, 3.54-8.44). In non-metastatic patients, survival differences for Black vs. White patients were attenuated by receipt of multi-modal treatment (1.53, 0.82-2.88). CONCLUSION: Observed racial disparities in survival of high-grade sarcoma may be addressed by early, multidisciplinary management.

Quality of breast surgery care at a comprehensive cancer center and its rural affiliate hospital.

BACKGROUND: Cancer centers are increasingly affiliating with rural hospitals to perform surgery. Perioperative and oncologic outcomes for cancer center surgeons operating at rural hospitals are understudied. METHODS: For patients with non-metastatic breast cancer from a rural catchment area who had oncologic surgery at an NCI-designated comprehensive cancer center (CC) or its rural affiliate (RA) from 2017 to 2022, we compared perioperative outcomes (composite of surgical site infection, seroma requiring drainage, and reoperation for margins) and receipt of guideline-concordant care (if patient received all applicable treatments) using descriptive statistics and chi-squared tests. RESULTS: Among 168 patients, 99 had surgery at RA, 60 CC. RA patients were older, higher stage, and more often had lumpectomy. There were no differences in perioperative outcomes (CC 10%, RA 14%, p â€‹= â€‹0.445) or guideline concordant care (RA 76%, CC 78%, p â€‹= â€‹0.846). CONCLUSIONS: Cancer center surgeons operating at a rural affiliate had comparable perioperative outcomes and guideline-concordant care.

Data-driven identification of total RNA expression genes for estimation of RNA abundance in heterogeneous cell types highlighted in brain tissue.

We define and identify a new class of control genes for next-generation sequencing called total RNA expression genes (TREGs), which correlate with total RNA abundance in cell types of different sizes and transcriptional activity. We provide a data-driven method to identify TREGs from single-cell RNA sequencing data, allowing the estimation of total amount of RNA when restricted to quantifying a limited number of genes. We demonstrate our method in postmortem human brain using multiplex single-molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization and compare candidate TREGs against classic housekeeping genes. We identify AKT3 as a top TREG across five brain regions.

Evolving variation in the extent of surgery for low-risk papillary thyroid cancer in the United States.

BACKGROUND: The continued debate over total thyroidectomy versus lobectomy and declining favor for prophylactic central neck dissection for patients with clinically node-negative papillary thyroid cancer ≤4 cm is ongoing after the 2015 guideline updates from the American Thyroid Association. This study aimed to evaluate contemporary trends in the extent of surgery in this low-risk cohort. METHODS: Retrospective data from the National Cancer Database were used to identify adult patients with clinically node-negative papillary thyroid cancer ≤4 cm who underwent resection from 2012 to 2020. The primary outcome was the extent of surgery (lobectomy or total thyroidectomy, with or without prophylactic central neck dissection). Multivariable regression was performed to identify characteristics associated with variation in the extent of surgery. RESULTS: Of 83,464 included patients, 79.3% were female patients with a median age of 51 years. The majority underwent total thyroidectomy either with prophylactic central neck dissection (39.1%) or without (37.5%) versus lobectomy with prophylactic central neck dissection (7.2%) or without (16.2%). Lobectomy rates increased from 18.3% in 2012 to 29.9% in 2020. Prophylactic central neck dissection rates also increased (42.9% to 52.1%). Patients who were male sex, Asian American, had smaller tumors or were treated at community cancer programs had a decreased likelihood of total thyroidectomy. Patients who were older, male sex, Black race, with smaller tumors, or were treated at community cancer programs or mid- or low-volume facilities had decreased likelihood of prophylactic central neck dissection. CONCLUSION: Proportional use rates of operative approaches for low-risk, clinically node-negative papillary thyroid cancer have changed in recent years after the American Thyroid Association guideline changes, including increasing overall rates of lobectomy as well as prophylactic central neck dissection, with differences noted based on patient- and facility-level factors.

Disparities in the Operative Experience Between Female and Male General Surgery Residents: A Multi-institutional Study From the US ROPE Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: To examine differences in resident operative experience between male and female general surgery residents. BACKGROUND: Despite increasing female representation in surgery, sex and gender disparities in residency experience continue to exist. The operative volume of male and female general surgery residents has not been compared on a multi-institutional level. METHODS: Demographic characteristics and case logs were obtained for categorical general surgery graduates between 2010 and 2020 from the US Resident OPerative Experience Consortium database. Univariable, multivariable, and linear regression analyses were performed to compare differences in operative experience between male and female residents. RESULTS: There were 1343 graduates from 20 Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education-accredited programs, and 476 (35%) were females. There were no differences in age, race/ethnicity, or proportion pursuing fellowship between groups. Female graduates were less likely to be high-volume residents (27% vs 36%, P < 0.01). On univariable analysis, female graduates performed fewer total cases than male graduates (1140 vs 1177, P < 0.01), largely due to a diminished surgeon junior experience (829 vs 863, P < 0.01). On adjusted multivariable analysis, female sex was negatively associated with being a high-volume resident (OR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.56 to 0.98, P = 0.03). Over the 11-year study period, the annual total number of cases increased significantly for both groups, but female graduates (+16 cases/year) outpaced male graduates (+13 cases/year, P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Female general surgery graduates performed significantly fewer cases than male graduates. Reassuringly, this gap in operative experience may be narrowing. Further interventions are warranted to promote equitable training opportunities that support and engage female residents.

Using Graduating Surgical Resident Milestone Ratings to Predict Patient Outcomes: A Blunt Instrument for a Complex Problem.

In 2013, U.S. general surgery residency programs implemented a milestones assessment framework in an effort to incorporate more competency-focused evaluation methods. Developed by a group of surgical education leaders and other stakeholders working with the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education and recently updated in a version 2.0, the surgery milestones framework is centered around 6 "core competencies": patient care, medical knowledge, practice-based learning and improvement, interpersonal and communication skills, professionalism, and systems-based practice. While prior work has focused on the validity of milestones as a measure of resident performance, associations between general surgery resident milestone ratings and their post-training patient outcomes have only recently been explored in an analysis in this issue of Academic Medicine by Kendrick et al. Despite their well-designed efforts to tackle this complex problem, no relationships were identified. This accompanying commentary discusses the broader implications for the use of milestone ratings beyond their intended application, alternative assessment methods, and the challenges of developing predictive assessments in the complex setting of surgical care. Although milestone ratings have not been shown to provide the specificity needed to predict clinical outcomes in the complex settings studied by Kendrick et al, hope remains that utilization of other outcomes, assessment frameworks, and data analytic tools could augment these models and further our progress toward a predictive assessment in surgical education. Evaluation of residents in general surgery residency programs has grown both more sophisticated and complicated in the setting of increasing patient and case complexity, constraints on time, and regulation of resident supervision in the operating room. Over the last decade, surgical education research efforts related to resident assessment have focused on measuring performance through accurate and reproducible methods with evidence for their validity, as well as on attempting to refine decision making about resident preparedness for unsupervised practice.

Integrated single cell and unsupervised spatial transcriptomic analysis defines molecular anatomy of the human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Generation of a molecular neuroanatomical map of the human prefrontal cortex reveals novel spatial domains and cell-cell interactions relevant for psychiatric disease. The molecular organization of the human neocortex has been historically studied in the context of its histological layers. However, emerging spatial transcriptomic technologies have enabled unbiased identification of transcriptionally-defined spatial domains that move beyond classic cytoarchitecture. Here we used the Visium spatial gene expression platform to generate a data-driven molecular neuroanatomical atlas across the anterior-posterior axis of the human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Integration with paired single nucleus RNA-sequencing data revealed distinct cell type compositions and cell-cell interactions across spatial domains. Using PsychENCODE and publicly available data, we map the enrichment of cell types and genes associated with neuropsychiatric disorders to discrete spatial domains. Finally, we provide resources for the scientific community to explore these integrated spatial and single cell datasets at research.libd.org/spatialDLPFC/.